Pure μ-opioids (methadone, morphine, hydromorphone) provide profound analgesia and are preferred for extensive dental procedures. Partial agonists (buprenorphine) are suitable for moderate pain.

The interplay between anaesthetic techniques and haemodynamic stability is vital to the safety and efficacy of veterinary interventions. Advances in pharmacology and monitoring technologies have ...

Epidural anaesthesia is a cornerstone of modern veterinary pain management, offering targeted regional analgesia that minimises systemic drug exposure and associated adverse effects. This technique ...